Gifts must not conflict with   religious or other taboos and care must be taken not to offend local sensibilities through ignorance of superstitions and hidden meanings. For example, it might seem hard to go wrong with a gift of flowers to one's hostess on a social occasion. But local sensibilities concerning the type, colour and number of blooms make it all too easy to err. Odd numbers of blooms are preferred (even numbers  suggest finality) but thirteen, seven and nine should be avoided.  In many countries red roses, indicate  a romantic interest, some flowers are associated with funerals (chrysanthemums in  France and Japan, white carnations in Switzerland) and  others suggest bad luck (camellias in Japan and carnations in France). Purple is the funeral colour in Mexico and Brazil,  brown in Iran and blue in Syria. 

Business gifts bring their own problems. Ostentation in the gift itself should be avoided (any appearance of bribery could be harmful ) but  presentational values, in terms of packaging, should be high. Reciprocity is important - an exchange of gifts should be of comparable values on each side. To refuse a gift  may  cause extreme loss of  face to the donor, but sometimes acceptance of an expensive guest  may conflict with company policy or the national law of the recipient. 

The wrong gift, or no gift, can jeopardize a business deal. But  there are  few general rules of  what might be considered "wrong".  Forseeably, it  is best to avoid anything that cuts, because this suggest the ending of relationships. But who would predict that white handkerchiefs could carry the same symbolism? They do in Japan, where you would also need to avoid anything related to do with foxes, which would suggest fertility, or badgers, because they are thought of as cunning.  Preparations by a major American company  for a visit by a high- ranking Chinese revealed  that the gift of a fine quality ornamental bowl would be inappropriate, because bowls are associated with subsistence farming and peasant famine. In another instance,  a delegation  from a developing country brought a handsome presentation to the Mayor of their host city in the USA but received a trivial  return gift. They felt compelled to purchase a replacement to avoid  humiliation on return to their own city.

It is all too easy to replicate examples of errors in gift giving. How can one get it right? 

For social gifts, advice from a knowledgeable local source should be sought whenever this is possible. But at least  good intentions, a sense of humour and the hosts'  desire to be welcoming to guests may provide some tolerance for a faux pas..

In business, there is less room for error. Thorough preparation is essential, and the expense of a gift cannot make up for lack of sensitivity in its choice. It is worth taking a good deal of time and trouble to form a clear view  of the recipient as an individual, taking account not only of rank and status but also of personality, family, tastes and interests, and make the most appropriate choice that can be thought of.